Conservation of Organs (Heart, Brain and Kidney) of Canine by Cold-Temperature Silicone Plastination in an Animal Anatomy Laboratory in Ecuador / Conservación de Órganos (Corazón, Encéfalo y Riñón) de Canino Mediante la Técnica de Plastinación en Silicona al Frío Realizada en Laboratorio de Anatomía Animal en Ecuador

SUMMARY: For the purposes of teaching anatomy, the use of cadaver preparations is considered the most efficient way of ensuring that students retain knowledge. Nevertheless, in Ecuador the use of animal specimens in universities must comply with the internationally accepted principles of replacement, reduction and refinement (3Rs). Plastination is an alternative technique which allows organs to be conserved in the long term and complies with the 3Rs. The object of the present work was to use cold-temperature silicone plastination with Biodur® products to obtain long-lasting, easy-to-handle canine organs for use as tools for the teaching of animal anatomy. Six canine cadavers were obtained from local animal protection charities. The hearts, brains and kidneys of the cadavers were dissected and fixed with formaldehyde 10 %. They were then dehydrated with acetone at -20 °C. The specimens were impregnated with Biodur® S10:S3 (-20 °C) and finally cured with Biodur® S6. We plastinated six hearts, twelve kidneys, four brains and one encephalic slice of canine. The application of cold-temperature plastination to canine organs followed the parameters established for the conventional protocol, enabling us to obtain organs of brilliant appearance, free of odours, in which the anatomical form was preserved. Thus the technique helped us to comply with the 3Rs, as we obtained easy-to-handle teaching models to replace fresh or formaldehyde-fixed samples for the teaching-learning of the canine anatomy.

En la enseñanza de la Anatomía, el uso de preparaciones cadavéricas se considera el método que permite a los estudiantes retener el conocimiento de una forma más eficiente. No obstante, en Ecuador, el uso de especímenes animales en las universidades se debe realizar bajo el principio internacional de reemplazo, reducción y refinamiento (3Rs). La técnica de plastinación es una técnica alternativa que permite preservar órganos a largo plazo y que se adapta al principio de las 3Rs. El objetivo del trabajo fue utilizar la técnica de plastinación en silicona al frío con productos Biodur® para obtener órganos caninos duraderos y manejables útiles como herramienta para la enseñanza de la anatomía animal. Se obtuvieron seis cadáveres de caninos de fundaciones locales para la protección animal. Se realizaron disecciones de corazones, cerebros y riñones de los cadáveres caninos. Los órganos se fijaron con formalina al 10 %. A continuación, se llevó a cabo la deshidratación con acetona a -20 °C. Los especímenes fueron impregnados con S10:S3 Biodur® (-20 °C) y al final fueron curados con Biodur® S6. Se lograron plastinar seis corazones, doce riñones, cinco encéfalos y un tallo encefálico de canino. La técnica de plastinación al frío utilizada para obtener órganos de canino conservó los parámetros empleados en el protocolo convencional y permitió obtener órganos que presentaron aspecto brillante, ausencia de olores y mantuvieron la forma anatómica. Por lo que, la técnica facilitó cumplir con el principio de las 3Rs al obtenerse modelos didácticos fáciles de manipular que pueden reemplazar muestras frescas o formolizadas en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de la anatomía del canino.

Morphology of the brain base arteries of the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla)

This study aimed to describe the brain base arteries of the Myrmecophaga tridactyla using ten cadavers of adults from this species, including five male and five female specimens. The arterial vascular bed was perfused via the thoracic aorta with a dyed natural latex solution, and the animals were fixed and preserved with a 10% formaldehyde buffered solution. The encephala were removed, and their vessels dissected. Basilar artery formation occurred by anastomosis of the thick ventral spinal artery with vertebral arteries. The basilar artery formed two arterial islands and gave bulbar and pontine branches, and cranial, middle, and caudal cerebellar arteries and ended by forking into its terminal branches, the caudal communicating arteries. The blood supply of the encephalon derived solely from the vertebrobasilar system, and the arterial circle of the brain was closed caudally and rostrally. The absence of participation of internal carotid arteries in encephalon irrigation, the island formations by the basilar artery, and the fusiform shape of the arterial circle of the brain are peculiar characteristics of the vascular anatomy of the brain base of M. tridactyla.

Comparative study of the distribution and expression of Neuroglobin and Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α in the adult and young Yak Brain / Estudo comparativo da distribuição e expressão de neuroglobina e fator-1α indutível por hipóxia em adultos e jovens iaques (Yak Brain)

Background: The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. Aim: The study examined the expression of Neuroglobin (Ngb) and Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (Hif-1α) in adult and young yak brain tissues, and provided researchers with meaningful insight into the anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry of this mammal. Method: The study employed immunohistochemistry (IHC), quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), and Western blot (WB) to obtain the results. Results: Ngb and Hif-1α were significantly (P<0.05) expressed in the cerebellar cortex, piriform lobe, medulla, and corpus callosum of the adult yak while in the young yak brain tissues, the protein expressions were significantly found in the white matter of the cerebellum, pineal gland, corpus callosum, and cerebellar cortex. The Ngb and Hif-1α expression showed similarities and differences. This may have resulted from similar animal species, source of nutrition, age factors, brain size, emotional activities, and communication. The findings documented that Ngb and Hif-1α are commonly expressed in various adult and young yak brain tissues. Multiple roles in the brain tissues of the adult and young yaks are involved in the expression and distribution and are proposed to play a significant role in the adaptation of the yak to the high altitude environment. Conclusion: This study provides meaningful data to understand the adaptive mechanism to hypoxia and recommended researchers to expand on the adaptive mechanism and brain tissues that are not recorded.

Contexto: O cérebro é um órgão que funciona como o centro do sistema nervoso em todos os animais vertebrados e na maioria dos invertebrados. Objetivo: O estudo examinou a expressão de neuroglobina (Ngb) e fator-1α indutível por hipóxia (Hif-1α) em tecidos cerebrais de iaques adultos e jovens e forneceu aos pesquisadores uma visão significativa da anatomia, fisiologia e bioquímica desse mamífero. Método: O estudo utilizou imuno-histoquímica (IHC), PCR quantitativo em tempo real (qRT-PCR) e western blot (WB) para a obtenção dos resultados. Resultados: Ngb e Hif-1α foram significativamente (P < 0,05) expressos no córtex cerebelar, lobo piriforme, medula e corpo caloso do iaque adulto, enquanto nos tecidos cerebrais do iaque jovem as expressões proteicas foram encontradas significativamente na substância branca do cerebelo, glândula pineal, corpo caloso e córtex cerebelar. A expressão de Ngb e Hif-1α apresentou semelhanças e diferenças. Isso pode ter resultado de espécies animais semelhantes, fonte de nutrição, fatores de idade, tamanho do cérebro, atividades emocionais e comunicação. Os resultados documentaram que o Ngb e o Hif-1α são comumente expressos em vários tecidos cerebrais de iaques adultos e jovens. Múltiplos papéis nos tecidos cerebrais de iaques adultos e jovens estão envolvidos na expressão e distribuição e são propostos para desempenhar um papel significativo na adaptação do iaque ao ambiente de alta altitude. Conclusão: Este estudo fornece dados significativos para compreender o mecanismo adaptativo à hipóxia e recomendou que os pesquisadores expandissem o mecanismo adaptativo e os tecidos cerebrais que não foram registrados.

Applying a unified model of fiber dissection, tractography, microscopic anatomy and plastination techniques for basic neuroanatomy education: Hacettepe University experience / Aplicación de un modelo unificado de disección de fibras, tractografía, anatomía microscópica y técnicas de plastinación para la educación básica en neuroanatomía: experiencia de la Universidad Hacettepe

SUMMARY: Anatomy education has gathered together a great many of many new modalities and was modified from classical lecture-based and laboratory practice system to the blended modules. In the scope of the present study, we develop a new, practical, cost- effective and efficient three dimensional (3D) educational model, which aimed to be helpful for the detection and better understanding of basic neuroanatomy education. Tractographic imaging, fiber dissection, microscopic anatomy and plastination techniques were applied to the white matter regions of the two brains. After the photographs that were taken were converted to 3D images, the specimens were plastinated. By way of establishing an educational model as a whole, we applied it to 202 second-year medical students. The students were separated into two groups when they attended to the theoretical lecture. Group 1 took the classical laboratory education; on the other hand, Group 2 received the newly designed educational model. Pre and post-tests were introduced to each group before and after laboratory sessions, respectively. The success scores were put to comparison. The average achievement scores of each group showed increase significantly (p<0.05) after the laboratory sessions, besides the increase in the post-test results of Group 2 was more statistically significant (p<0.05). Consequently, this new educational model enriched by newly designed unified methods could be regarded as useful for grasping and improving the basic neuroanatomy knowledge.

La educación en anatomía ha reunido una gran cantidad de nuevas modalidades, modificándose el sistema clásico de la práctica del laboratorio y de las clases basadas en conferencias, hacia los módulos combinados. En el ámbito del presente estudio, desarrollamos un modelo educativo tridimensional (3D) nuevo, práctico, rentable y eficiente, que pretendía ser útil para la detección y una mejor comprensión de la educación básica en neuroanatomía. Se tomaron imágenes tractográficas, disección de fibras, anatomía microscópica y técnicas de plastinación en los cerebros. Después de convertir las fotografías que se tomaron en imágenes 3D, se plastinaron los especímenes. A modo de establecer un modelo educativo en su conjunto, lo aplicamos a 202 estudiantes de segundo año de medicina. Los estudiantes fueron separados en dos grupos cuando asistieron a la clase teórica. El Grupo 1 tomó la educación clásica de laboratorio; por su parte, el Grupo 2 recibió el nuevo modelo educativo diseñado para el estudio. Se introdujeron pruebas previas y posteriores a cada grupo, antes y después de las sesiones de laboratorio. Se compararon las puntuaciones. Los puntajes promedio de rendimiento de cada grupo mostraron un aumento significativo (p<0,05) después de las sesiones de laboratorio. Además, se obtuvo un aumento en los resultados positivos, posteriores a la prueba del Grupo 2, siendo estadísticamente significativo (p<0,05). En consecuencia, este modelo educativo, enriquecido por métodos unificados de nuevo diseño, podría considerarse útil para captar y mejorar los conocimientos básicos de neuroanatomía.

Comparative analysis of brain in relation to the body length and weight of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in captive (hatchery) and wild (river system) populations / Análise comparativa do cérebro em relação ao comprimento do corpo e peso da carpa comum (Cyprinus carpio) em populações de cativeiro (incubatório) e selvagem (sistema fluvial)

Cyprinus carpio is the member of family cyprinidae commonly called common carp. This study was aimed to find out the comparison of brain of wild (river system) and captive (hatchery reared) population of common carp. A total of thirty samples (15 from hatchery and 15 from river Swat) were collected. All the specimens were examined in Laboratory of Parasitoloy, Zoology Department, University of Malakand. Findings indicated that wild population were greater in brain size and weight as compared to hatchery reared population. The fish samples collected from captive environment (hatchery) were showing more weight and length as compared to wild population of common carps. The mean value of total weight of hatchery fishes 345±48.68 and the mean value of brain weight of hatchery reared fishes 0.28±0.047. The mean value of wild fish’s total body weight 195.16±52.58 and the mean value of brain weight of wild fishes are 0.45±0.14. Present research calls for the fact that fish in dependent environmental conditions possess brain larger in size as compared to its captive population, it is due to use and disuse of brain in their environmental requirements.

Cyprinus carpio é o membro da família cyprinidae comumente chamada de carpa comum. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar a população de cérebros de carpa comum selvagem (sistema fluvial) e em cativeiro (criação em incubatório). Um total de trinta amostras (15 do incubatório e 15 do rio Swat) foram coletadas. Todos os espécimes foram examinados no Laboratório de Parasitoloy, Departamento de Zoologia da Universidade de Malakand. Os resultados indicaram que a população selvagem era maior em tamanho e peso do cérebro em comparação com a população criada em incubatório. As amostras de peixes coletadas em ambiente de cativeiro (incubatório) estavam apresentando mais peso e comprimento em comparação com a população selvagem de carpas comuns. O valor médio do peso total dos peixes de incubação 345 ± 48,68 e o valor médio do peso do cérebro de peixes criados em incubadoras 0,28 ± 0,047. O valor médio do peso corporal total dos peixes selvagens 195,16 ± 52,58 e o valor médio do peso do cérebro dos peixes selvagens são 0,45 ± 0,14. A presente pesquisa apela para o fato de que peixes em condições ambientais dependentes possuem cérebros maiores em tamanho em comparação com sua população em cativeiro, isso se deve ao uso e desuso do cérebro em suas necessidades ambientais.

The arterial circle described by Willis, and the contribution of his predecessors / O círculo arterial descrito por Willis e a contribuição de seus predecessores

The description of arteries at the base of the human brain forming an 'arterial circle', named after Thomas Willis, has had a long history after the restoration of human dissection, partly due to the studies of many outstanding anatomists that preceded Willis. He provided, with the collaboration of Richard Lower and Christopher Wren, the first incontestable complete description, as recognized nowadays, accompanied by a superb illustration. Additionally, he presented an explanation for its meaning, indicating for the first time the functional significance of this structure, in health and disease. However, it should be recognized that the initial studies of the arteries of the base of the human brain by Willis' predecessors, as well as those from ancient times, despite their fragmentary descriptions, were certainly pivotal in paving the way for further and more detailed knowledge of this vascular formation.

A descrição das artérias da base do cérebro humano, formando um 'círculo arterial', designado com o nome de Thomas Willis, tem uma longa história após o restauro de dissecções humanas, em parte devido aos estudos de muitos anatomistas de renome que precederam Willis. Ele proveu, com a colaboração de Richard Lower e Christopher Wren, a primeira descrição completa e incontestável, assim como a reconhecida atualmente, acompanhada por uma ilustração soberba. Adicionalmente, apresentou uma explicação quanto ao seu significado, indicando pela primeira vez a importância funcional dessa estrutura, na saúde e na doença. Entretanto, deve ser reconhecido que os estudos iniciais das artérias da base do cérebro humano pelos predecessores de Willis, assim como os de tempos antigos, apesar de suas descrições fragmentárias, certamente foram fulcrais na pavimentação do caminho para o conhecimento mais avançado e detalhado dessa formação vascular.

Anatomical, radiological and clinical features of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: two illustrated cases reports / Aspectos anatômicos, radiológicos e clínicos da epilepsia do lobo temporal mesial: relato ilustrado de dois casos

Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is the most commom form of focal epilepsy in adults. Its clinical features include focal seizure, dysmnestic symptoms ­ such as déjà vu or jamais vu ­ and autonomic or psychic aura. We reported two cases of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with similar clinical features, but with entirely different etiologies. Mesial temporal sclerosis contributes up to 70% of all mesial temporal lobe epilepsy cases and MRI usually shows reduced hippocampal volume and increased signal intensity on T2-weighted imaging. Incomplete hippocampal inversion has uncertain relation with epilepsy and is characterized by an atypical verticalized and medially positioned anatomical pattern of the hippocampus and also a deep collateral sulcus.

A epilepsia do lobo temporal mesial é a forma mais comum de epilepsia focal em adultos. Suas características clínicas incluem crises focais, sintomas dismnésicos - como déjà vu ou jamais vu - e aura autonômica ou psíquica. Relatamos dois casos de pacientes com epilepsia do lobo temporal mesial com manifestações clínicas semelhantes, mas com etiologias completamente diferentes. A esclerose mesial temporal contribui com até 70% de todos os casos de epilepsia do lobo temporal mesial e, geralmente, na ressonância magnética, apresenta atrofia do hipocampo e hipersinal na imagem ponderada em T2. A rotação incompleta do hipocampo possui uma relação incerta com a epilepsia e é caracterizada por alteração da estrutura interna do hipocampo, com um sulco colateral verticalizado e profundo.

Cerebral localization of higher functions: anatomic structures before the identification of their memory function / Localização cerebral de funções superiores: estruturas anatômicas antes da identificação de suas funções de memória

The nature of memory and the search for its localization have been a subject of interest since Antiquity. After millennia of hypothetical concepts the core memory-related structures finally began to be identified through modern scientifically-based methods at the diencephalic, hippocampal, and neocortical levels. However, there was a clear temporal delay between the finding of these anatomic structures ignoring their function, and their identification related to memory function. Thus, the core structures begun to be identified with a pure anatomical view in the late Middle Ages on, while the memory function related to them was discovered much later, in the late Modern Period.

A natureza da memória e a busca de sua localização tem sido objeto de interesse desde a Antiguidade. Após milênios de conceitos hipotéticos as estruturas centrais relacionadas com a memória finalmente começaram a ser identificadas através de métodos modernos com base científica, nos níveis diencefálico, hipocampal e neocortical. Entretanto, houve um claro retardo temporal entre o achado dessas estruturas anatômicas ignorando sua função e sua identificação relacionada à função da memória. Assim, as estruturas centrais começaram a ser identificadas com uma visão puramente anatômica da Idade Média tardia em diante, enquanto a função da memória relacionada com as mesmas foi descoberta muito mais tarde, no Período Moderno tardio.

Preparación de hemisferios cerebrales para disección de tractos / Preparation of cerebral hemispheres for tracts dissection

Desde la antigüedad se han desarrollado técnicas para el estudio del cerebro con fines didácticos o neuroquirúrgicos. Hacia 1934 Josef Klingler desarrolla una técnica de preparación de hemisferios cerebrales que basada en la fijación con formalina y el congelamiento para aislar los tractos cerebrales. El objetivo de la presente artículo ha sido analizar los métodos de preparación utilizados para la disección de tractos en cerebros humanos y de animales. Se realizó una revisión de la literatura en las bases de datos Web of Science, Scopus, Pubmed, Medline y Scielo, utilizando como descriptores: Disección, Cerebro, Tracto, con el operador booleano "AND" entre ellos, en los idiomas inglés y español, hasta junio de 2018. Fueron seleccionados 26 documentos, para el análisis se determinaron las variables: espécimen, número de hemisferios cerebrales, concentración de formalina, tiempo de fijación, temperatura, tiempo de congelamiento y tractos identificados. En la literatura seleccionada, un total de 410 hemisferios cerebrales fueron analizados, 372 de humanos y 38 de animales; 330 fueron conservados en formalina al 10 %, 20 en formalina al 5 % y el resto en otras concentraciones. El tiempo de fijación fue variable entre 10 y 180 días, así como la temperatura y tiempo de congelación (-10 ºC y -20 ºC, entre 8 y 30 días). En todos los casos se reportó que, en su totalidad o parcialmente, los fascículos cerebrales de asociación fueron aislados. En la preparación de hemisferios cerebrales para disección de tractos, Ludwig & Klingler (1956) recomiendan que en la fijación de los especímenes se utilice formalina al 5 %, sin embargo, el 80 % de los hemisferios utilizados fueron fijados en formalina al 10%, y en esta concentración, el tiempo de fijación, temperatura y tiempo de congelación fue variable, lográndose, en todos los casos analizados, la disección parcial o total de los tractos.

Since ancient times, techniques for the study of the brain have been developed for didactic or neurosurgical purposes. By 1934, Josef Klingler developed a cerebral hemisphere preparation technique based on formalin fixation and freezing to isolate the cerebral tracts. The aim of this article was to analyze the preparation methods used for tracts dissection in human and animal brains. A review of the literature using Web of Science, Scopus, Pubmed, Medline and Scielo databases, with the following descriptors: Dissection, Brain, Tract, with the boolean operator "AND" among them, also in spanish, until June 2018. Twenty-six documents were selected, and we analized the following variables: specimen, number of cerebral hemispheres, formalin concentration, fixing time, temperature, freezing time and tracts. In the selected literature, a total of 410 cerebral hemispheres were analyzed, 372 from humans and 38 from animals; 330 were preserved in 10 % formalin, 20 in 5 % formalin and the rest in other concentrations. The fixation time was variable between 10 and 180 days, as well as the temperature and freezing time (-10 ºC and -20 ºC, between 8 and 30 days). In all cases it was reported that, in whole or in part, the cerebral fascicles of association were isolated. In the preparation of cerebral hemispheres for dissection of tracts, Klingler recommend that 5 % formalin for the fixation of specimens; however, 80 % of the hemispheres used were fixed in 10 % formalin, and in this concentration, the time of fixation, temperature and time of freezing was variable, achieving, in all the cases analyzed, the partial or total dissection of the tracts.

Post-mortem brain weight reference range for a select South African population / Rango de referencia del peso cerebral post-mortem para una población sudafricana seleccionada

Human brain weight plays a significant role in clinical and forensic settings, as cause of death may affect brain weight; and may be used in the detection of abnormalities associated with neurological disorders. Brain weights are geography specific and incorrect reference ranges may hinder interpretation during clinical and autopsy settings. This study assessed the influence of age, sex and race on post-mortem brain weights of a select medico-legal population; to create a geographically relevant reference range of brain weights for the eThekwini region. Standard autopsy protocol and procedures, using the Ghon method of dissection were implemented on four hundred and eighty-one decedents. Decedents were obtained from a medico-legal state mortuary in the eThekwini region, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa from June 2015 to March 2016. Black South African decedents comprised 83.6 % (402/481) of the sample population and whom reference ranges were formulated. Male decedents attained peak weight significantly earlier in the 11-20 year age interval, whereas female decedents in the 41-50 year age interval. However, no significance was observed between brain weight and age (p=0.799). Significant differences between sexes was noted, with mean male brains weighing significantly more (137.69 g, p<0.001). The mean brain weights were 1404.82±145.07 g and 1267.13±163.96 g in Black males and females, respectively. Post-mortem brain weights were predominantly of Black South Africans, with brain weights of both sexes comparably like those reported in the Northern hemisphere. However, brain weights attained peak weight at different age intervals, with variant brain weights between different racial groups within South Africa. Therefore, brain weight reference ranges may not be applicable to another geographic locality.

El peso del cerebro humano tiene un rol importante en los entornos clínicos y forenses, ya que la causa de la muerte puede afectar el peso del éste; además puede se puede usar en la detección de anomalías asociadas con trastornos neurológicos. Los pesos cerebrales son específicos de la geografía y rangos de referencia incorrectos pueden dificultar la interpretación en la clínica y la autopsia. Este estudio evaluó la influencia de la edad, el sexo y la raza en el peso cerebral post-mortem de una población médico-legal seleccionada; para crear un rango de referencia geográficamente relevante de pesos cerebrales para la región eThekwini. El protocolo y los procedimientos estándar de autopsia, utilizando el método de disección de Ghon, se implementaron en 481 cadáveres. Los cadáveres se obtuvieron de un depósito de cadáveres médico-legal en la región de eThekwini, KwaZulu-Natal, Sudáfrica, entre junio de 2015 a marzo de 2016. Los cadáveres, afro descendientes de Sudáfrica, comprendían el 83,6 % (402/ 481) de la población de la muestra y se formularon los rangos de referencia. Los fallecidos masculinos alcanzaron el peso máximo significativamente más temprano en el intervalo de edad de 11-20 años, mientras que las mujeres fallecidas, correspondió al intervalo de edad de 41 años. Sin embargo, no se observó significación entre el peso del cerebro y la edad (p = 0,799). Se observaron diferencias significativas entre sexos, con cerebros masculinos medios que pesaban significativamente más (137,69 g, p<0,001). Los pesos cerebrales medios fueron 1404,82±145,07 g y 1267,13±163,96 g en hombres y mujeres negros, respectivamente. Los pesos cerebrales post-mortem fueron predominantemente de sudafricanos negros, con pesos cerebrales de ambos sexos comparables a los reportados en el hemisferio norte. Sin embargo, los pesos cerebrales alcanzaron el peso máximo a diferentes intervalos de edad, con pesos cerebrales variables entre diferentes grupos raciales dentro de Sudáfrica. Por lo tanto, los rangos de referencia de peso del cerebro pueden no ser aplicables a otra localidad geográfica.

Los múltiples rostros del síndrome orbitofrontal / The Many Faces of Orbitofrontal Syndrome

Resumen El síndrome orbitofrontal es un síndrome neuropsiquiátrico con síntomas que afectan a los dominios cognitivo, afectivo y conductual alterando algunos de los rasgos que nos definen como especie, como la flexibilidad cognitiva y la regulación afectiva. Para realizar una buena práctica, el clínico debe estar familiarizado con la neuroanatomía funcional y la semiología neuropsiquiátrica del síndrome. Se realiza una revisión de la literatura, haciendo énfasis en el amplio espectro de manifestaciones clínicas del síndrome; se presentan 3 viñetas clínicas que muestran los diferentes rostros que puede asumir el síndrome. Se discuten posibles factores que influyen en la heterogeneidad de la presentación clínica. Tomando un modelo de jerarquías neurales, se proponen dos ejes a partir de los cuales se puede buscar las invariantes del síndrome orbitofrontal, la pérdida de la integración de información interoceptiva y exteroceptiva y la pérdida de regulación afectiva.

Abstract Orbitofrontal syndrome is a neuropsychiatric syndrome composed of cognitive, affective and behavioural symptoms, disrupting some of the traits that define us as a species, like cognitive flexibility and affective regulation. In order to effectively treat the condition, the clinician needs to be familiar with both the functional neuroanatomy and the neuropsychiatric semiology of the syndrome. A review of the literature is presented, emphasising the broad spectrum of clinical manifestations of the syndrome, together with three clinical vignettes showing the many faces of the syndrome. Several factors influencing the heterogeneity of clinical presentation are discussed. Taking a hierarchical model of neural networks, two core concepts, loss of interoceptive/exteroceptive integration and loss of affective regulation, are proposed in looking for invariants in orbitofrontal syndrome.

Áreas cerebrais do macaco prego (Cebus apella Linnaeus, 1766) / Brain areas of capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella Linnaeus, 1766)

O Cebus apella é uma espécie protegida por lei, contribui para a manutenção dos ecossistemas florestais com comportamento social semelhante aos humanos. Descrevemos a topografia das áreas cerebrais do Cebus apella, para observar e descrever a organização dos sulcos e lobos em cada hemisfério cerebral, esquematizando-os. A análise foi feita pela observação de 30 (trinta) hemisférios cerebrais, fixados em álcool 70 %, dissecados sob mesoscopia de luz. Foram descritos 4 (quatro) lobos cerebrais principais: Frontal; Parietal; Temporal e Occipital e suas complexas circunvoluções cerebrais, característica de primatas com movimentos rápidos. A análise foi: vista medial apresentando sulco caloso marginal, parieto-occipital, calcarino, para-calcarino, retro-calcarino, colateral, occipito-temporal e rostral; vista lateral apresentando sulco rectus, frontal médio, ramo horizontal arcuatus, superior subcentral, arcuatus, lateral, paralelo, temporal inferior, central, intraparietal, angular, pré-occipital transverso, occipital tranverso ou lunatus, occipital inferior, occipital médio, occipital superior e parieto-occipital. São constantes na vista lateral os sulcos lateral, paralelo, central, intraparietal e lunatus, os demais variam de um antímero para o outro. Na vista medial os sulcos parieto-occipital, caloso marginal e calcarino são constantes. Na morfologia dos giros cerebrais a presença ou ausência dos sulcos e suas variações são indicativos de uso maior ou menor de córtex cerebral, característica importante para o domínio das circunstâncias sociais e ambientais, para garantir a sobrevivência da espécie.

The Cebus is a species protected by law, which contributes to the maintenance of forest ecosystems, presenting a social behavior similar to humans. The brain area topography of Cebus is described in this paper, with the purpose of observing and describing the organization of the sulcus and lobes in each cerebral hemisphere, outlining them. The analysis was performed by observing thirty (30) cerebral hemispheres fixed in 70% alcohol, dissected under mesoscopy light. Four (4) major cerebral lobes have been described: Frontal; Parietal; Temporal and Occipital and their complex brain convolutions, characteristic of primates with rapid movements. The areas analyzed were: facies medialis showing marginal sulcus callosum, parietal-occipital, calcarinus, retro calcarinus, collaterales, occipital temporales and rostralis; facies lateralis showing sulcus rectus, medialis rostralis, horizontal arcuatus segment, superior sub-central, arcuatus, lateralis, parallel, inferior temporalis, centralis, intraparietalis, angular, transverse pre-occipital, tranverse occipital or lunatus, inferior occipital, medius occipital, superior occipital and parietalis occipital. The lateral view presented the lateral, parallel, central, intraparietal and lunatus sulcus, and the other ranged from one antimere to the other. The medialis view presented the parietal-occipital sulcus, marginal and calcarinus callosum. The morphology of the brain gyrus, the presence or absence of sulcus and their variations are an indication of greater or lower use of the brain cortex, an important characteristic for the domain of the social and environmental circumstances to guarantee the survival of the species.

Topological and histological description of preoptic area and hypothalamus in cardinal tetra Paracheirodon axelrodi (Characiformes: Characidae)

Topological and histological descriptions of the preoptic area and hypothalamus of the cardinal tetra Paracheirodon axelrodi were performed. Standard histological paraffin sections were used and stained with Nissl technique, and plastic sections for high-resolution optic microscopy (HROM). The preoptic area showed some differences related to the location of the magnocellular preoptic nucleus (PM) and the size of the neurons in this region, as they were the biggest in all the preoptic area. Additionally, within the preoptic area, the different structures that comprise the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT) were identified and characterized. The hypothalamus could be subdivided in three regions - the ventral, the dorsal and the caudal hypothalamic regions - neuron morphology, size and staining pattern were similar in all of them.(AU)

ESUMEN Se realizó la descripción topológica e histológica del área preóptica e hipotálamo en el Neón cardenal Paracheirodon axelrodi. Se usaron cortes obtenidos con tecnicas histológicas estándar, coloreados con técnica de Nissl y secciones en resina con microscopía óptica de alta resolución (MOAR). El área preóptica muestra algunas diferencias relacionadas con la localización del núcleo preóptico magnocelular (PM) y el tamaño de algunas neuronas en esta región, puesto que estas eran las más grandes de toda el área preoptica. Adicionalmente, dentro del área preóptica, fue posible identificar y caracterizar las diferentes estructuras que componen el órgano vasculoso de la lámina media (OVLM). El hipotálamo puede sudividirse en tres zonas: la zona hipotalámica ventral, la zona hipotalámica dorsal y la zona hipotalámica caudal. La morfología de las neuronas de los núcleos que comprenden las diferentes zonas del hipotálamo tiene tamaño, forma y coloración similar.(AU)

Brain neuroimaging of domestic cats: correlation between computed tomography and cross-sectional anatomy / Neuroimagem cerebral de gatos domésticos: correlação entre a tomografia computadorizada e a anatomia seccional

Computed tomography of the brain is necessary as part of the diagnosis of lesions of the central nervous system. In this study we used six domestic cats, male or female, aged between one and five years, evaluated by Computed Tomography (CT) examination without clinical signs of central nervous system disorders. Two euthanized animals stating a condition unrelated to the nervous system were incorporated into this study. The proposal consisted in establishing detailed anatomical description of tomographic images of normal brain of cats, using as reference anatomical images of cross sections of the stained brain and cranial part, with thicknesses similar to the planes of the CT images. CT examinations were performed with and without intravenous iodinated contrast media for live animals. With one euthanized animal, the brain was removed and immediately preserved in 10% formalin for later achievement in cross-sectional thickness of approximately 4mm and staining technique of Barnard, and Robert Brown. The head of another animal was disarticulated in the Atlanto-occipital region and frozen at -20ºC then sliced to a thickness of about 5mm. The description of visualized anatomical structures using tomography is useful as a guide and allows transcribing with relative accuracy the brain region affected by an injury, and thus correlating it with the clinical symptoms of the patient, providing additional information and consequent improvement to veterinarians during the course of surgical clinic in this species.(AU)

A tomografia computadorizada do cérebro é de suma importância como parte do diagnóstico de lesões do sistema nervoso central. Neste estudo, foram utilizados seis felinos domésticos, machos ou fêmeas, com idade entre um e cinco anos, avaliados pela tomografia computadorizada (TC), sem sinais clínicos de distúrbios do sistema nervoso central. Dois cadáveres indicando a condição relacionada com o sistema nervoso foram incorporados ao presente estudo. A proposta consistiu na criação da descrição anatômica detalhada das imagens tomográficas de cérebro normal de gatos, usando como referência a imagens anatômicas de secções transversais do cérebro coradas, realizadas com espessuras similares aos planos das imagens tomográficas. Exames de TC foram realizados com e sem contraste iodado intravenoso para os animais vivos. Em um dos cadáveres, o cérebro foi removido e imediatamente preservado em formalina a 10% para a realização posterior da técnica de coloração de Barnard e Robert Brown, além de cortes transversais com espessura de, aproximadamente, 4mm. O crânio do outro cadáver foi desarticulado na região atlanto-occipital e congelado a -20ºC. Em seguida, foi realizado corte com espessura de cerca de 5mm. A descrição das estruturas anatômicas visualizadas foi útil e serve como guia, permitindo descrever com relativa precisão a estrutura cerebral normal ou lesionada, e, portanto, correlacionando-a com os sintomas clínicos de um paciente, o que fornece informações adicionais e consequente aprimoramento de veterinários no curso de clínica cirúrgica para essa espécie.(AU)

Evolução cronológica do conhecimento neuroanatômico / Chronological evolution of neuroanatomical knowledge

Desde a antiguidade, o pensamento científico evoluiu em fases e este artigo faz uma análise histórica sucinta sobre o avanço do conhecimento neuroanatômico. Assim, foi feita uma análise temporal que não somente permite uma descrição dessa evolução, bem como esclarece o modo e a profundidade com que as estruturas foram sendo compreendidas. A descrição das descobertas neuroanatômicas subdividida em quatro fases temporais distintas permitiu compreender a evolução do pensamento neurológico e as correlações existentes entre os relatos.

Since ancient times, the scientific thinking evolved in stages, and thisarticle is a brief historical analysis of the progress of the neuroanatomical knowledge. Consequently, a temporal analysis not only provides a description of this evolution, as explained by the manner and depth with which the structures were being understood. The description of the neuroanatomical finfings subdivided into four distinct temporal phases allowed to understand the evolution of neurological thought and the correlations between the reports.

Gross morphology of the brain of Pseudopimelodus bufonius (Valenciennes, 1840) (Siluriformes: Pseudopimelodidae)

The gross morphology of the brain of the pseudopimelodid Pseudopimelodus bufonius is described and compared with congeners. Observations were made on removed brains after elimination of bones from the top of the skull and severing of the cranial nerves and the spinal cord. Nine morphometric characters associated with the major subdivisions of the brain were identified, seven of which revealed significant differences among the species examined. The corpus cerebelli in all examined species of the genus is the largest structure of the brain. The behavior of the species of Pseudopimelodus is still unknown, but in other teleosts that condition is typically correlated with a higher degree of motor coordination. Relative size proportions of the tectum opticum, eminentia granularis, lobus facialis and lobus vagi, might be related to carnivory and an enhanced capacity for food selection.

A morfologia externa do encéfalo de Pseudopimelodus bufonius é descrita e comparada com seus congêneres. As análises foram feitas no cérebro removido após a eliminação dos ossos do topo da cabeça e secção dos nervos cranianos e cordão espinhal. Nove caracteres morfométricos foram obtidos das principais subdivisões do encéfalo, dos quais em sete ocorreram diferenças significativas entre as espécies. Em todas as espécies examinadas do gênero o corpus cerebelli é a maior estrutura do encéfalo. O comportamento das espécies de Pseudopimelodus ainda é desconhecido, mas em outros teleósteos esta característica é normalmente correlacionada com uma boa coordenação motora. Além disso, as proporções relativas do tectum opticum, eminentia granularis, lobus facialis e lobus vagi podem ser relacionadas a hábitos carnívoros e boa capacidade de selecionar alimentos.